Viewpoints:
From the Statehouse to the Classroom:
Governing America's Schools
Is Politics in Education Here to Stay?
The History of Education Governance and Politics
With all of the effort and attention directed towards education from every level of government, it is difficult to believe there is no mention of education or its governance within the federal constitution. For most of the 19th century, education lacked a pervasive governing structure at either the national or local levels. It would be inaccurate to describe the U.S. as having an actual public education "system." Rather, "schooling was a local affair" (Chubb, 1990). Authority was highly decentralized and schooling was overseen by those who knew the local schools best. The Industrial Revolution of the late 1800s marked a shift within the private sector toward corporate operational models and a reliance on "experts" to increase organizational efficiency. The role of expertise permeated not just large-scale industry but found its way into education governance as well (Timar & Tyack, 1999). The local superintendent filled the role of education expert, a figure intended to lend professionalism and neutrality to large, often unwieldy school boards. The watchwords of reform during the first half of the 20th century became centralization, expertise, professionalism, and efficiency (Kirst, 2000).
From the late 1950s through the early 1970s, the education system faced new challenges from people who had been systematically disenfranchised based on race, class, gender, and ability. The system of expertise and professionalism was inflexible in design and thus unable to meet the needs of certain segments of the population. As state legislatures and the courts exerted pressure on behalf of new grass-roots political actors, the system became fragmented and thus more responsive to these unique needs (Tyack, 1990).
With the release of A Nation at Risk in 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education warned of an education crisis tantamount to a national defense crisis. The images of a rising tide of educational mediocrity are debatable. What is clear, however, is the power and the impact education would have on politics throughout the rest of the century. Education became the hottest and most hotly contested political football in the political arena. The benefits of riding the education reform wave as a politician could not be overlooked. Unlike many federally issued reports, A Nation At Risk received widespread public attention. The public made demands on politicians to "Do something."
They asked questions: "How bad is it?" "How did it get this bad?" "Who let this happen?" "Who is going to be responsible for it?" These questions quickly found their way into state-level politics. Education became a central focus for the National Governors Association during the 1980s and '90s. States exerted greater pressure upon and created systems of accountability for local districts. Business leaders, parents, and educational experts became key voices in the dialogue of reform. The solutions proposed at all levels were highly outcomes based: demand more by setting a new standard for schools, teachers, and students. After all, failure to expect enough in terms of test scores, passing rates, and graduation rates resulted in a national crisis.
A Nation at Risk legitimized the beginnings of education reform and set the stage for the education reformer bandwagon (Elmore, 1997). Political campaigns were won and lost, in part, on the public's faith in political candidates to become our education saviors. The 1980s witnessed the powerful emergence of education politicians. Mayors and governors campaigned on their abilities to turn education around, while a dramatic increase in state legislation introduced high standards for teachers and students (Tyack, 1990). The 1990s incorporated the notion of autonomy and accountability further, with growing support for a free-market system of governance in the shape of charters, vouchers, and school choice with a growing emphasis on standardized testing.
