Risk Factors

Gardner, Green, and Marcus (1994) have identified the following risk factors:

"Individual-Based Risk Factors:

• Inadequate life skills

• Lack of self-control, assertiveness, and peer-refusal skills

• Low self-esteem and self-confidence

• Emotional and psychological problems

• Favorable attitudes toward alcohol, tobacco, and other drug (ATOD) use

• Rejection of commonly held values and religion

• School failure

• Lack of school bonding

• Early antisocial behavior (such as lying, stealing, and aggression, particularly in boys), often combined with shyness or hyperactivity" (p. 5)

"Family-Based Risk Factors:

• Family conflict and domestic violence

• Family disorganization

• Lack of family cohesion

• Social isolation of family

• Heightened family stress

• Family attitudes favorable to drug use

• Ambiguous, lax, or inconsistent rules and sanctions regarding ATOD use

• Poor child supervision and discipline

• Unrealistic expectations for development" (p. 10)

"School-Based Risk Factors:

• Ambiguous, lax, or inconsistent rules and sanctions regarding drug use and student conduct

• Favorable staff and student attitudes toward ATOD use

• Poor student management practices

• Availability of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs on the school premises

• Lack of school bonding" (p. 16)

"Peer Group-Based Risk Factors:

• Association with delinquent, ATOD-using peers

• Association with peers who have favorable attitudes toward ATOD use

• Susceptibility to peer pressure

• Strong external focus of control" (p. 21)

"Community-Based Risk Factors:

• Community disorganization

• Lack of community bonding

• Lack of cultural pride

• Lack of bicultural competence

• Community attitudes favorable to drug use" (p. 25)

References