What Does Research Say About Reading?

R.A. Knuth and B.F. Jones
NCREL, Oak Brook, 1991

What follows in this section are major findings from cognitive psychology regarding:

• New and old definitions of the reading process.

• Important findings about reading and learning from cognitive science.

• Characteristics of poor and successful readers.

• Milestones in reading research.

• Characteristics of successful teaching/learning environments.

• Roles of schools and communities.

These findings were developed by NCREL in collaboration with our Content Partner, the Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and the participants in Program 1, "Children as Strategic Readers."

The traditional view of the learner as an "empty" vessel to be filled with knowledge from external sources is exemplified by this statue at the University of Leuven (Belgium).

Old and New Definitions of Reading

	Traditional Views	New Definition of Reading
Research Base	Behaviorism	Cognitive sciences
Goals of Reading	Mastery of isolated facts and skills	Constructing meaning and self-regulated learning
Reading as Process	Mechanically decoding words; memorizing by rote	An interaction among the reader, the text, and the context
Learner Role/Metaphor	Passive; vessel receiving knowledge from external sources	Active; strategic reader, good strategy user, cognitive apprentice.

Reprinted from the Guide to Curriculum Planning in Reading
with permission from the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction

Comprehension results from an interaction among the reader, the strategies the reader employs, the material being read, and the context in which reading takes place.

Important Findings from Cognitive Sciences

Most of the knowledge base on this topic comes from studies of good and poor readers. However, some of it is derived from research on expert teachers and from training studies.

1. Meaning is not in the words on the page. The reader constructs meaning by making inferences and interpretations.

2. Reading researchers believe that information is stored in long-term memory in organized "knowledge structures." The essence of learning is linking new information to prior knowledge about the topic, the text structure or genre, and strategies for learning.

3. How well a reader constructs meaning depends in part on metacognition, the reader's ability to think about and control the learning process (i.e., to plan, monitor comprehension, and revise the use of strategies and comprehension); and attribution, beliefs about the relationship among performance, effort, and responsibility.

4. Reading and writing are integrally related. That is, reading and writing have many characteristics in common. Also, readers increase their comprehension by writing, and reading about the topic improves writing performance.

5. Collaborative learning is a powerful approach for teaching and learning. The goal of collaborative learning is to establish a community of learners in which students are able to generate questions and discuss ideas freely with the teacher and each other. Students often engage in teaching roles to help other students learn and to take responsibility for learning. This approach involves new roles for teachers.

Characteristics of Poor/Successful Readers

Important Trends in Reading Instruction

1. Linking new learnings to the prior knowledge and experiences of students. (In contexts where there are students from diverse backgrounds, this means valuing diversity and building on the strengths of students.)

2. Movement from traditional skills instruction to cognitive strategy instruction, whole language approaches, and teaching strategies within the content areas.

3. More emphasis on integrating reading, writing, and critical thinking with content instruction, wherever possible.

4. More organization of reading instruction in phases with iterative cycles of strategies: Preparing for reading—activates prior knowledge by brainstorming or summarizing previous learnings; surveys headings and graphics; predicts topics and organizational patterns; sets goals/purpose for reading; chooses appropriate strategies.

   Reading to learn—selects important information, monitors comprehension, modifies predictions, compares new ideas with prior knowledge, withholds judgement, questions self about the meaning, connects and organizes ideas, and summarizes text segments.

   Reflecting on the information—reviews/summarizes the main ideas from the text as a whole, considers/verifies how these ideas are related; changes prior knowledge according to new learnings; assesses achievement or purpose for learning; identifies gaps in learning; generates questions and next steps.

Milestones in Reading Research

1. Evidence that meaning is not in the words, but constructed by the reader.

2. Documentation that instruction in the vast majority of classrooms is text driven and that most teachers do not provide comprehension instruction.

3. Documentation that textbooks were very poorly written, making information in them difficult to learn; subsequent response of the textbook industry to include real literature, longer selections, more open-ended questions, less fragmented skills, and "more considerate" text.

4. Changes in reading research designs from narrowly conceived and well-controlled laboratory experiments with college students to (1) broadly conceived training studies using experimenters and real teachers in real classrooms and (2) studies involving teachers as researchers and colleagues in preservice and inservice contexts.

5. Publication of A Nation of Readers reaching out to parents, policymakers, and community members as legitimate audiences for direct dissemination of research information.

6. Involvement of state education agencies in textbook selection, promoting "the new definition of reading," and developing statewide assessment programs that are research based; especially important are programs in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois which have longer passages, more focus on comprehension, more than one right answer, strategy use, and assessment of prior knowledge.

7. Increasing dissatisfaction with standardized methods of assessing reading. (Consequently, there has been a movement to develop alternative assessment strategies including miscue analysis, portfolios, and projects in the classroom.)

Issues of Equity and Excellence

1. Although many students at risk come to school lacking in prior knowledge that is relevant to school achievement, teachers and schools do make a substantial difference. That is, providing students at risk with high quality instruction can drastically alter their academic performance.

2. Although pullout programs and tracking may be well intended, reading researchers increasingly argue that such programs may actually create or extend inequities by segregating students at risk in poor quality programs. Indeed, some researchers contend that the learned helplessness that may characterize students at risk is a functional response to the demands of a dysfunctional situation.

3. An increasing amount of research indicates that student access to functional adult role models is vital for the development of self-esteem and metacognitive abilities. This can come from adult tutors or opportunities for students to participate in the world of work through work/study, shadowing, and apprenticeship programs.

The Social Organization of the School

1. Approaches that teach reading as thinking (strategic reading) need time to develop so that teachers can adopt new beliefs, experiment with research-based methods, and refine new practices. This suggests that schools need to provide (a) sustained staff development programs which provide mentoring and coaching, and (b) environments that support experimentation and risk-taking.

2. Reading performance is enhanced when schools have semipermeable boundaries. That is, when:
   • Parents and other community members are involved in the life of the school as tutors, local experts, role models, and aides in schools.

   • Students and teachers have opportunities for learning out of school.

   • Community members take part in the redesign process.

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Activities for Teachers

The examples of excellence in this program clearly show that in world class schools teaching is a multidimensional activity. One of the most powerful of these dimensions is that of "teacher as researcher." Not only do teachers need to use research in their practice, they need to participate in "action" research in which they are always engaging in investigation and striving for improved learning. The key to action research is to pose a question or goal, and then design and implement actions and evaluate progress in a systematic, cyclical fashion as the means are carried out. Below are four major ways that you can become involved as an action researcher.

1. Use the checklist found at the end of this section to evaluate your school and teaching approaches.

2. Implement the models of excellence presented in this program. Ask yourself:
   • What outcomes do the teachers in this program accomplish that I want my students to achieve?

   • How can I find out more about the model classrooms?

   • Which ideas can I most easily implement in my classroom?

   • What will I need from my school and community?

   • How can I evaluate progress?

3. Form a team and initiate a research project. A research project can be designed to generate working solutions to a problem. The issues for your research group to address are:
   • What is the problem or question you wish to solve?

   • What will be our approach?

   • How will we faithfully implement the approach?

   • How will we assess the effectiveness of our approach?

   • What is the time frame for working on this project?

   • What resources do we have available?

   • What outcomes do we expect to achieve?

4. Investigate community needs and integrate solutions within your class activities. Relevant questions include:
   • What needs does the community have in terms of reading and writing?

   • What can be done (for example, training) by my class to meet community needs?

   • What skills and resources does the community have that could benefit my students?

   • What kind of relationships can my class forge with the community?

5. Establish "Community of Learners" support groups consisting of school personnel and community members. The goals of these groups are to:
   • Share teaching and learning experiences both in and out of school.

   • Discuss research and theory related to learning.

   • Act as mentors and coaches for one another.

   • Connect goals of the community with goals of the school.

Activities for Schools, Parents, and Community Members

The following are activities that groups such as your PTA, church, and local Chamber of Commerce can do together with your schools.

1. Visit your school informally for discussions using the checklist below.

2. Consider the types of contributions community groups could offer:
   • Chamber of Commerce groups could sponsor field trips or opportunities for storytelling.

   • Businesses could buy collections of literature for schools in need.

   • Churches could sponsor reading groups to help motivate adults to read.

   • Local fraternal organizations could help tutor students and provide a place for them to read.

3. Consider ways that schools and community members can work together to provide:
   • Materials for a rich learning environment (e.g., real literature in print and audio form, computers).

   • Opportunities for students and teachers to learn out of school.

   • Opportunities for students to access adults as role models, tutors, aides, and local experts.

   • Opportunities for students to provide community services such as surveys, newsletters, plays, and tutoring.

   • Opportunities for students to participate in community affairs.

   • Opportunities for administrators, teachers, or students to visit managers and company executives.

4. Promote school and community forums to debate the national goals:
   • Involve your local television and radio stations to host school and community forums.

   • Have "revolving school/community breakfasts" (community members visit schools for breakfast once or twice a month, changing the staff and community members each time).

   • Gather information on the national goals and their assessment.

   • Gather information on alternative models of schooling.

   • Gather information on best practices and research in the classroom.

   Some of the important questions and issues to discuss in your forums are:

   • Review the national goals documents to arrive at a common understanding of each goal.

   • What will students be like who learn in schools that achieve the goals?

   • What must schools be like to achieve the goals?

   • Revisit the Gallup poll taken on the national goals:

     Do we agree with the goals, and how high do we rate each?

     What is the reason for the pessimism about their achievement?

     How are our schools doing now in terms of achieving each?

     Why is it important for us to achieve the goals?

     What are the consequences for our community if we don't achieve them?

5. What assumptions are we making about the future in terms of Knowledge, Technology and Science, Humanities, Family, Change, Population, Minority Groups, Ecology, Jobs, Global Society, Social Responsibility? Discuss in terms of each of the goal areas.

6. Consider ways to use "Children as Strategic Readers" to promote understanding and commitment from school staff, parents, and community members for strategic reading.

Checklist for Excellence in Reading Instruction

The items below are based on the best practices of the teachers and researchers in Program 1. The checklist can be used to look at current practices in your school and to jointly set new goals with parents and community groups.

Vision of Learning

• Meaningful learning experiences for students and school staff.

• High enjoyment of reading, writing, and learning.

• Restructuring to promote learning in the classroom.

• High expectations for learning for all students.

• A community of readers in the classroom and in the school.

• Teachers and administrators committed to achieving the national goals.

Curriculum and Instruction

• Curriculum that calls for a diversity of real literature and genre, a repertoire of learning strategies and organizational patterns for text passages.

• Collaborative teaching and learning involving student-generated questioning and sustained dialogue among students and between students and teachers.

• Teachers building new information on student strengths and past experiences.

• Authentic tasks in the classroom such as writing letters, keeping journals, generating plays, author conferences, genre studies, research groups, sharing expertise, and so on.

• Opportunities for students to engage in learning out of school with community members.

• Real audiences (E.g., peers, community members, other students).

• Homework that is challenging enough to be interesting but not so difficult as to cause failure.

• Appreciation and respect for multiple cultures and perspectives.

• Rich learning environment with places for children to read and think on their own.

• Instruction that enables readers to think strategically.

Assessment and Grouping

• Performance-based assessment such as portfolios that include drafts and projects.

• Multiple opportunities to be involved in heterogeneous groupings, especially for students at risk.

• Public displays of student work and rewards.

Staff Development

• Opportunities for teachers to attend conferences and meetings for reading instruction.

• Teachers as researchers, working on research projects.

• Teacher or school partnerships/projects with colleges and universities.

• Opportunities for teacher to observe and coach other teachers.

• Opportunities for teachers to try new practices in a risk-free environment.

Involvement of the Community

• Community members' and parents' participation in reading instruction as experts, aides, guides, and tutors.

• Active involvement of community members on task forces for curriculum, staff development, assessment and other areas vital to learning.

• Opportunities for teachers and other school staff to visit informally with community members to discuss the life of the school, resources, and greater involvement of the community.

Policies for Students at Risk

• Students at risk integrated into the social and academic life of the school.

• Policies/practices to display respect for multiple cultures and role models.

• Assessment practices that are culturally unbiased.

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Important Reading Resources

Reading Recovery Program is a supplementary reading and writing program for first-graders who are at risk of reading failure. Reading Recovery was originally developed by New Zealand educator and psychologist Marie M. Clay. It was implemented in Ohio and is now employed in several other states. The short-term goal is to accelerate children's progress in learning to read. The long-term goal is to have children continue to progress through their regular classroom instruction and independent reading, commensurate with their average peers, after the intervention is discontinued. Success is contingent upon the intensive, individual instruction provided by a specially trained teacher for 30 minutes daily. Illinois Reading Recovery Project, Center for the Study of Reading, 51 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820 (217/333-7213).

Teaching Reading: Strategies from Successful Classrooms is a set of six videotapes and accompanying viewer's guides developed by the Center for the Study of Reading. Each tape presents in-depth analyses of successful classrooms. The programs focus on exemplary teachers and students in order to provide viewers with real access to knowledge about effective reading practices. The aim of the program is to provide simulated field experiences for use in college-level education courses for preservice teachers and inservice workshops for practicing teachers. The classrooms featured are:

• Emerging Literacy, Ann Hemmeler (Kindergarten), Neal Elementary, San Antonio, TX.

• The Reading/Writing Connection, Dawn Harris Martine (second), Mahalia Jackson Elementary, Harlem, NY.

• Teaching Word Identification, Marjorie Downer (second/third), Benchmark Elementary, Media, PA.

• Literacy in Content Area Instruction, Laura Pardo (third), Allen Street Elementary, Lansing, MI.

• Fostering a Literate Culture, Kathy Johnson (third), East Park Elementary, Danville, IL.

• Teaching Reading Comprehension: Experience and Text, Joyce Ahuna-Ka'ai'ai (third), Kamehameha Elementary, Honolulu, HI.

• Center for the Study of Reading, 51 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820 (217/333-2552).

Rural Wisconsin Reading Project (RWRP) was a three-year project developed by NCREL, the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, and the Wisconsin Educational Communications Board that provided technology-supported staff development on strategic reading and teaching for 17 rural districts in central and west-central Wisconsin. The project's approach to develop strategic reading instruction was to treat human and organizational change as a long-term, evolutionary process rather than as a process of implementing an innovation. Two programs have arisen out of RWRP: (1) The Rural Schools Reading Project which applies what was learned from RWRP to address the access, time, and cost challenges of sustained, effective staff development for a network of rural schools (this project is on the list of programs that work from the National Diffusion Network of the U.S. Department of Education), and (2) The Strategic Reading Project which is a single school application of the RWRP principles. NCREL, 1120 Diehl Road, Naperville, IL 60563 (630/649-6500).

Reciprocal Teaching is an instructional strategy for teaching strategic reading developed by Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students. In this dialogue the teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading the dialogue about a passage of text. Four strategies are used by the group members in the dialogue: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. At the start the adult teacher is principally responsible for initiating and sustaining the dialogue through modelling and thinking out loud. As students acquire more practice with the dialogue, the teacher consciously imparts responsibility for the dialogue to the students, while becoming a coach to provide evaluative information and to prompt for more and higher levels of participation. Annemarie Palincsar, 1360 FEB, University of Michigan, 610 East University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.

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GLOSSARY

Coaching Providing support in studying new skills, polishing old ones, and encouraging change.

Collaborative Groups A temporary grouping structure used primarily for developing attitude outcomes. Students of varying abilities work together to solve a problem or to complete a project.

Comprehension Monitoring Good comprehenders self-evaluate how well they understand while they read. If comprehension is not proceeding well, they have strategies for going back and improving their comprehension.

Constructing Meaning from Text A process in which the reader integrates what is read with his or her prior knowledge.

Cooperative Learning Students working together in small heterogeneous groups to achieve a common goal.

Heterogeneous Groups Groups composed of students who vary in several ways (for example, different reading levels).

Homogeneous Groups Groups composed of students who are alike in one or more ways.

Interactive Phase Sometimes called "guided practice" in this phase, the teacher attempts gradually to move students to a point where they can independently use strategies. It is a major part of a lesson.

Metacognition The process of thinking about and regulating one's own learning. Examples of metacognitive activities include assessing what one already knows about a given topic before reading, assessing the nature of the learning task, planning specific reading/thinking strategies, determining what needs to be learned, assessing what is comprehended or not comprehended during reading, thinking about what is important and unimportant, evaluating the effectiveness of the reading/thinking strategy, revising what is known, and revising the strategy.

Modeling Showing a student how to do a task with the expectation that the student will then emulate the model. In reading, modeling often involves talking about how one thinks through a task.

Predicting Anticipating the outcome of a situation.

Prior Knowledge The sum total of what the individual knows at any given point. Prior knowledge includes knowledge of content as well as knowledge of specific strategies and metacognitive knowledge.

Scaffolding Instruction Providing teacher support to students by modeling the thought processes in a learning episode and gradually shifting the responsibility for formulating questions and thinking aloud to the students.

Strategic Learner A learner who analyzes the reading task, establishes a purpose for reading, and then selects strategies for this purpose.

Strategies Any mental operations that the individual uses, either consciously or unconsciously, to help him- or herself learn. Strategies are goal oriented; that is, the individual initiates them to learn something, to solve a problem, or to comprehend something. Strategies include, but are not limited to, what have traditionally been referred to as study skills such as underlining, note taking, and summarizing, as well as predicting, reviewing prior knowledge, and generating questions.

Text Any segment of organized information. Text could be a few sentence or an entire section of a chapter. Typically, text refers to a few paragraphs.

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